The Maya Essay - 1356 Words

The Maya were a dominating society of Mesoamerica, rich in culture, community, and art. While life may not be completely interpretable yet, much in known about how these societies were constructed, and how their religion dominated their lives. Much is generally made of their massive stonework, their ceremonial complexes, and ritual sacrifices, but their small jade, ceramic, and stone sculpture deserves as much attention as the works of much larger size have received. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;The Maya, inhabiting southern Mexico, Guatemala, and northern Belize, began to settle in communities around 1500 b.c. By A.D. 200, these communities had grown into large cities with expansive areas of temples, pyramids, ball courts, and plazas.1†¦show more content†¦nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Because maize was considered sacred during the Classic Maya period, that god was a prominent figure in Mayan sculpture. The people’s belief that maize was ground with water to create the flesh and blood of the first human is essentially what prompted such revere of this particular deity. A stone figure of the Maize God, from Copan, depicts ritualized gesture and contemplation. Figure 10 is a figurine of a ruler dancing with maize, from Guatemala. According to Mary Ellen Miller, the â€Å"Maize God dances as the ‘mother-father’- a primary source of human life.†4 Some characteristics of this god include the enormous rack on his back, with small creatures wedged into a frame, usually wearing a betted hipcloth or skirt, and generally wearing a carved spiny oyster shell to give a symbolic vagina.5 nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Rulers were also depicted during this time in sculpture. Figure 11 is a funerary vessel with a portrait head to embody the man as eternally youthful. While figure 12 is an incense burner depicting the ruler sitting on a Cauac Monster throne. This also represents the ruler as an eternal youth figure. The throne symbolizes earth, rocks, and mountains. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Late Classic Maya sculpture demonstrates the freedom that artists now had to develop original style. According to Coe, â€Å"their artShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Maya s The Maya 942 Words   |  4 PagesMaya Secrets Locked in Stone Maya scholars debated for decades over the fate of the Maya. Recent evidence from an unlikely source, points a sustained drought in the 9th and 10th Centuries. Stalagmites and Stone Carvings Offer Clues on the Collapse of the Maya Civilization Circa 900 A.D., the Maya world fell apart. How could an ancient Meso American civilization flourish for hundreds of years only to fade into the forest? That riddle has perplexed scholars ever since 19th century explorersRead MoreEssay on Maya2969 Words   |  12 PagesMaya The ancient Maya were a group of American Indian peoples who lived in southern Mexico, particularly the present-day states of Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatan, and Quintana Roo, and in Belize, Guatemala, and adjacent Honduras. Their descendants, the modern Maya, live in the same regions today, in both highlands and lowlands, from cool highland plains ringed by volcanos to deep tropical rain forests. Through the region runs a single major river system, the Apasion-Usumacinta and itsRead MoreThe Aztec And Maya930 Words   |  4 Pagesshaped state authority and control. Mesoamerica is a culture and region in Mexico/northern South America, that existed from 3500 BCE to 1697 AD. Two important cultures within mesoamerica are the Aztec and Maya. 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The Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington Dc, are two black granite walls which areRead MoreMaya Angelou655 Words   |  3 PagesMa 2(1565443) Maya Angelou is known as the â€Å"most visible black female autobiographer/poet.† She was born, Marguerite Ann Johnson, on April fourth, 1928 in St. Louis, Missouri. Her parents divorced when she was three, and she and her brother were sent to live with their grandmother in Stamps, Arkansas. Seeing all the racial discrimination in the American south strengthened her passion for poetry, music, dance and performance. Maya writes about the struggles people face, racism and freedom. At ageRead MoreAncient Maya Essay868 Words   |  4 PagesAncient Maya Essay Matthew Pitcher Mrs Meligrana Ancient Civilizations June 8th, 2011 Pitcher1 The Ancient Mayan civilization stands out from other ancient civilizations and is great because of its outstanding achievements and developments. 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Although, the Aztec and Maya s were from different time periods they shared cultural similaritiesRead MoreMaya Collapse1895 Words   |  8 Pagesstated in â€Å"Maya civilization† (n.d), the Maya is a Mesoamerican civilization which is not only notably well-known for its written language system but also being famous for many achievements in art, architecture, mathematics and astronomy. Although the Maya civilization lasted for a long period of time from the Pre-classic period to the Post-classic period until now, its prosperous time happened during the Classic period which thereafter seen the mystical collapse of Maya empire ( Maya civilizationRead MoreMaya Empire2343 Words   |  10 PagesInstitution Professor Date Causes of the Maya Empire Decline Introduction The Maya Empire that was located in the tropical lowlands of what now stands as the Guatamela reached its climax of power and influence in the sixth century A.D. The Maya were successful in farming, hieroglyph writing, pottery, mathematics, and architecture. They left behind impressive architecture and inscriptions that are a record of their symbolic artwork. Researchers have established that the Maya cities were completely abandonedRead MoreSecrets And The Collapse Of The Maya Essay926 Words   |  4 PagesSecrets Locked in Stone Maya scholars debated for decades over the fate of the Maya. Recent evidence from an unlikely source, points a sustained drought in the 9th and 10th Centuries. Stalagmites and Stone Carvings Offer Clues on the Collapse of the Maya Civilization Circa 900 A.D., the Maya world fell apart. How could an ancient Meso American civilization flourish for hundreds of years only to fade into the forest? That riddle has perplexed scholars ever since 19th century explorers John

Painting Review Currys Tornado Over Kansas Essay Example For Students

Painting Review: Currys Tornado Over Kansas Essay In the distance you can see a few roses running around in panic because of the approaching tornado, In the background there is a large funnel cloud that is approaching. There are no other houses or buildings in the background, other than two different barns that are also a part toothier farm. The father is obviously in charge tooth situation. You can tell because he is leading the children to the entrance to the cellar and the mother, who is already at the entrance, is looking back at him. The second painting is a still life painting by the artist Severing Rosen, who is lived to be born in Germany but became famous in America. He is known for his still life paintings. The piece located at the Muskegon Museum of Art is a small arrangement of fruit on a table. The background is a plain grey color and the table that the fruit is all sitting on is a dark grayish black marble one. In the center of the picture is the display of fruit. The arrangement of fruit appears to have a light shone on it, causing it to stand out even more against the dark table and background. There are both white and black grapes, peaches, a pear, two lumps, some small red berries and some leaves on a stem that am assuming are part of a grape vine. Some of the leaves are completely green, others are like those in the fall that are on their way from green to red. Every color is present in the picture is present. White grapes, the red berries and the red on the edges of the leaves, orange in the leaves and on the peaches, yellow in the leaves and the peaches, the green stems and the leaves sprouting from them, blue and purple in the grapes that fades into the same shade of black that is the table. The third painting the called View of Venice is an American painting, The painting is from the point view of someone looking at the city of Venice from afar. To the right there are a few other boats that are also facing the city. These boats are a bright gold color which is also seen in the church. The church is easily the largest thing in the picture, even though it is not necessarily the front most item in the picture. The church is the largest and tallest thing in the picture. Beyond the boats you can see the cityscape, where all of the buildings are lined up next o one another, all to the very edge of the water. None of the buildings come close to the height of even the main part of the church, let alone the dome and the tower, Starting from the far right the buildings are small and get larger as they get closer to the church and after the church they decrease in size until the edge of the page. All of the men in the boats are looking toward the land with undivided attention. The sky and water are both a uniquely bright blue. Everything that you see in in the picture is reflected in the Water.

Impact of the Religious Fundamentalism on Society

Some Christian, Jewish, and Muslim fundamentalists are using their views to control people in their community and worldwide and have similarities of being a cult. Fundamentalism, whether it is Christian, Jewish or Muslim, seems to be on the rise. Fundamentalists think they are defending the â€Å"true† faith, but are they? Why are these movements spreading and what is their nature? Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Impact of the Religious Fundamentalism on Society specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Christians, Jews, and Muslims are religions based on the Abrahamic doctrines and are characterized by opposition to those who fail to follow their beliefs and teachings. These are monotheist faiths since they worship a supreme deity referred by different names. They are ignorant of ‘others’ faiths and oppose their standpoint, therefore denying them mutual understanding and respect essential for pe ople to coexist harmoniously (Ruthven 4). These religions have an â€Å"us and them† syndrome where they observe themselves as victims, and therefore marginalize themselves from the main society where they have continued to thrive. In addition, religious fundamentalism forms the foundation of unrest since nineteen eighties, when Berlin Wall collapsed and marked the end of the Soviet Union, hence end of cold war hacking left its scars on Asia Latin America and Africa. Modern religious wars have led to great number of people being killed having religion as the grounds for inspiration and identity (Ruthven 5). Religion is therefore the opium of the masses as asserted by Karl Marx. Fundamentalism is a pejorative concept used in a sacred context, which can be defined as firm adherence to certain theological beliefs due to a literal understanding of the scriptures and opposes the popular beliefs (Bruce 9). Fundamentalism is a concept that can be traced in the early twentieth centur y and is used in today’s world to refer to religious beliefs supported by individuals who see a need to identify themselves with original ideologies, which is essential in retaining their social and religious distinctiveness. Fundamentalists could also be described as religious extremism or religious fanaticism, a notion similar to that of a cult. A cult is a pejorative term that describes a group of individuals, which has its own beliefs system and usually follows directives of particular leader who established it, and whom they worship. Some point out that a cult is manipulative and usually imprisons the minds of its followers through ritual practices where members devote themselves. Cults are usually characterized by having controlling charismatic heads who brainwashes and indoctrinates its followers by ensuring their dependency on the organization is achieved by instilling terror, disgrace and guilt, which enable the leaders to exploit the followers. The directives are us ually unquestioned and emphasizes that salvations is the way to survive apocalypse. They segregate themselves from the main society and usually punish those who abandon it (Willis 155).Advertising Looking for term paper on religion theology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Islam, Christians and Jews are main religions whose sectarian practices are similar to those of a cult, since they describe each one of themselves as the true religion. They restrict their followers from abandoning the beliefs and most importantly, they segregate defiant members who are bound to face the leader’s wrath when they do so. For instance, some religions like Islam advocates for apostasy where one faces a death penalty on defying Islamic teachings. In such a case, these unorthodox practices are disregarded by public opinion that refers to those who practice them as fundamentalists (Bruce 10). In addition, religious leaders in these religion s demand total loyalty and submission from their followers (Hedges 91). Some, such as televangelists utilize their religious position to financially exploit through deception to the followers to ass wealth for themselves (Hedges 174). As a result, there is dependence on the members where they are assured that their generous contributions will lead to abundance blessings, not only in this life but also in the one to come. Moreover, these leaders apply tactics to ensure that the followers cannot question, or have an independent way of thinking thus there is overreliance on the leader for direction (Hedges 26). Therefore, in such a case, the followers become united in a single brotherhood and a communal feeling is achieved in serving their one and only leader (Hedges 80). The communal feeling however triggers the religious leaders to develop ways to ensure that their control is maintained by instructing its members to stop intermingling with the other members of the society. This promo tes exclusion where followers refer to themselves as ‘us’ and the outsiders as ‘them’. The members acquire a sense of worthiness where they observe themselves as having an opportunity to have salvation, which is a precious gift they need to safeguard. This thinking is exploited by the religious leaders who assures the followers that indeed, they are unique, privileged and chosen to have a chance of exercising the will of God, hence they will be rewarded (Hedges 88). For instance, according to the article written be the Network for Church Monitoring, there has been a notion that Christian, Jewish Muslim fundamentalists unanimously hold that disastrous natural phenomenon’s are ways of God vengeance on the sins that have filled the world. Although the religions are different in their formations and teachings, they all agree that the catastrophic occurrences emanate from God.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Impact of the Reli gious Fundamentalism on Society specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More On the same note, the Shiite prayer and an American Christian, John Hagee concur that Iran earthquakes are as a result of women whose dressing is revealing, and are immoral. In a different occasion, an ultra-orthodox head, Ismail Haniyeh asserts that the natural fire annihilating Carmel Forest in Israel originates from God who is wrathful, a notion that is agreed upon by Chief Rabbi, Ovadia Yosef who blames the fire on laxity in observing the Sabbath in Israel. Muslims, represented by Haniyeh, the Palestinian Prime Minister elect points out that the fires â€Å"are plagues from God†¦Allah is punishing them [the Israelis] from a place they did not expect it† (Cohen pr. 10). These are mere, theological justifications whose relevance cannot be ascertained. Therefore, these religions identify themselves as saved or not. This creates â€Å"us and them† noti on, which is fueled by comradeship and disregards the â€Å"unsaved† people. As a result, Abrahamic faiths are characterized by violence where its members are recruited and incited to engage in violent acts, which is ideologically justified by their scriptural references. Their beliefs are intolerable by others who have opposing views, who regard these practices and self- deceiving dogma as absurd and inaccurate. Nonetheless, these religions publicly declare their standpoints in indoctrinating others, including innocent children who should grow open-mindedly without being cocooned in some absurd teachings. Muslims for instance regard others who do not believe as they do their enemies by dehumanizing and killing them. In comparison, Jewish fanatics are very strict in clarifying the rabbinic understanding of the Bible, which may be the cause of the violence that typifies their country Israel. This makes a liberal believer to view the said God as being mischievous and one who de lights in violence. To be incorporated in the religious groups therefore requires that its members conform to the practices and teachings directed by leaders and remain submissive to reap God’s blessings (Hedge 174). The member’s subjugation is exploited by religious leaders, which may impair personal relationships and families. Leaders could sexually abuse the followers as a way to demonstrate love, which God commands (Renard 157). This psychologically bonds the followers to their leader who now controls the members’ lives entirely.Advertising Looking for term paper on religion theology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In some instances, the members neglect their families, where those who are impoverished or emotionally weak prefer to be a part of the group and remain submissive in exchange for their needs being met. These followers cannot question the scriptures’ requirements (Merkur 172). In conclusion, fundamentalism incorporates various aspects such as power, ignorance and control. Fundamentalist’s teachings are destructive to the followers and the non-believers. A communal feel is necessary for the followers of Christian, Jewish and Islamic teachings, since there is a need to defend their practices as a large group to justify its existence and to ensure its continuity. Today, jihad propagandas spread by Islam fundamentalists are based on violence, which is justified by the Koran. Fundamentalism is a notion that contrasts scientific and technological advancements in today’s globalized world. Often, it leads to a clash of ideologies since technology and science has enabled man to resist such a naturalistic thought and instead, determine his fate other than relying of divinity in his interpretations. Therefore, religious fundamentalists should not only be flexible and open minded in interpreting scripture phenomenon and in leadership, but should avoid overreliance on the static historical scriptural writings, whose accuracy is questionable (Bruce 25). Works Cited Bruce, Steve. Fundamentalism. Cambridge: Polity Press. 2008. Print. Cohen, Marsha. Christian, Jewish and Muslim Fundamentalists Agree that Natural Disasters Are God’s Revenge on the Modern World. Network for Church Monitoring. 2010. Web. Hedges, Chris: American fascists: the Christian Right and the war on America. New York: Free Press, Simon and Schuster. 2006. Print. Merkur, Dan. â€Å"Psychology of Religion.† The Rutledge Companion to the Study of Religion. Ed. John R. Hinnells. New York: Routledge. 2005.Print. Michigan: Visible Ink Press. 2004. Print. Renard, John. The Handy R eligion Answer Book. Michigan: Visible Ink Press. 2002. Print. Ruthven, Malise. Fundamentalism: the search for meaning. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005. Print. Willis, Jim. â€Å"Cult.† The Religion Book: Places, Prophets, Saint, and Seers. Michigan: Visible Ink Press, 2004. Print. This term paper on Impact of the Religious Fundamentalism on Society was written and submitted by user Plo Koon to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on John Wemmick

â€Å"Perhaps, properly speaking, Dickens had no ideas on any subject; what he had was a vast sympathetic participation in the daily life of mankind; and what he saw of ancient institutions made him hate them, as needless sources of oppression, misery, selfishness, and rancour.† –George Santayana Rules. Guidelines. Laws. From the beginning of time, people have lived under the heavy thumb of expectations placed upon them by others. What to do and when to do it, what to say and when to say it somehow societies have come up with their own rulebooks for what is permissible and what is to be looked down upon, leaving each man to choose between his inner yearnings and the clarion call of the organized civilization. This problem faces John Wemmick in Charles Dickens’ Great Expectations. On the surface, Wemmick appears to be a dedicated worker and upstanding member of society who maintains a healthy domestic lifestyle. Upon closer inspection, we see that Wemmick plays host to two polar personalities: the hard working, upstanding worker in bustling London, and the amiable, carefree resident of Walworth. Through careful examination of Wemmick’s character, Dickens prompts his reader to reflect upon the two sides of humanity as a whole. In Victorian society, employees were expected to carry themselves with a degree of professionalism and excellence. Caring for others and becoming emotionally involved in work were seen as signs of weakness. Mr. Jaggers, Wemmick’s employer and literary counterpart, appears completely eaten up by his work. He takes his courtroom attitude with him everywhere, to the point that others avoid conversation with him for fear of being cross-examined. Wemmick passes on this soame air of intimidation to Jagger’s clients as he collects funds and â€Å"portable property.† However, this attitude is not truly characteristic of Wemmick. He says, â€Å"[The way I carry myself in] the office is one thing, private life ... Free Essays on John Wemmick Free Essays on John Wemmick â€Å"Perhaps, properly speaking, Dickens had no ideas on any subject; what he had was a vast sympathetic participation in the daily life of mankind; and what he saw of ancient institutions made him hate them, as needless sources of oppression, misery, selfishness, and rancour.† –George Santayana Rules. Guidelines. Laws. From the beginning of time, people have lived under the heavy thumb of expectations placed upon them by others. What to do and when to do it, what to say and when to say it somehow societies have come up with their own rulebooks for what is permissible and what is to be looked down upon, leaving each man to choose between his inner yearnings and the clarion call of the organized civilization. This problem faces John Wemmick in Charles Dickens’ Great Expectations. On the surface, Wemmick appears to be a dedicated worker and upstanding member of society who maintains a healthy domestic lifestyle. Upon closer inspection, we see that Wemmick plays host to two polar personalities: the hard working, upstanding worker in bustling London, and the amiable, carefree resident of Walworth. Through careful examination of Wemmick’s character, Dickens prompts his reader to reflect upon the two sides of humanity as a whole. In Victorian society, employees were expected to carry themselves with a degree of professionalism and excellence. Caring for others and becoming emotionally involved in work were seen as signs of weakness. Mr. Jaggers, Wemmick’s employer and literary counterpart, appears completely eaten up by his work. He takes his courtroom attitude with him everywhere, to the point that others avoid conversation with him for fear of being cross-examined. Wemmick passes on this soame air of intimidation to Jagger’s clients as he collects funds and â€Å"portable property.† However, this attitude is not truly characteristic of Wemmick. He says, â€Å"[The way I carry myself in] the office is one thing, private life ...

Research Methods in Sales and Marketing for Tourism Essay

Research Methods in Sales and Marketing for Tourism - Essay Example Furthermore, the proponent provides examples in their application in the tourism sector. Quantitative research method Quantitative research is a common method used in investigating or finding information in various fields of studies. This method ensures that information can be transformed into figures for quantitative analysis. Quantitative research method preserves neutrality and sees to it that there will be no bias since the collected data will be used for quantitative analysis, so it is more numerically measurable (Bennett, 1986; Shi, 2008). In quantitative analysis, there is a need to come up with objective output because a researcher deals with figures and transforms them into essential information that can be subjected to more meaningful interpretation and source of information. One common quantitative research method is experimental method. In experimental method, the researcher could potentially obtain information from certain observations under controlled condition. Thus, t here are important things that need to be considered prior to obtaining the most essential information and one of them is to ensure the significance and validity of the entire method used. Quantitative research is quite flexible but its potential drawback could be its not being able to potentially explain all types of phenomena (Muijs, 2004). Qualitative research method Qualitative statements and concepts comprise the body of qualitative analysis (Shi, 2008). Qualitative research method still applies numerical data which potentially include counting and assigning numbers to observations, but the presence of qualitative statement and concepts prevail as its general core foundation. Thus, it may still turn out that all information under qualitative approach cannot be numerical in nature but in a verbal form (Creswell, 2003). Observations which are integral components of qualitative statements and analyses are important in qualitative research method because they would ensure that the analysis will be well presented and the research aim is substantially obtained. An interview for instance regarding certain issue may focus more on understanding the framework of the subject and this could potentially concentrate the analysis on general qualitative information. Qualitative method therefore can be done at multiple levels of analysis (Piekkari and Welch, 2004). This means a researcher could still potentially find information in using this method even at various levels of analysis. An interview or focus group for instance can essentially initiate this because what the researcher needs is to integrate various concepts or frameworks in order to bring the entire analysis at different levels, depending on the actual objectives. However, one general and potential drawback of qualitative method is that the sample size is small and non-random, making findings most likely not conclusive at some point (VanderStoep and Johnson, 2008). The differences It is noted based on the abo ve discussion that both methods of research; the quantitative and qualitative have potential advantages and drawbacks. Furthermore, they are an entirely different approaches; that is why they have significant noted difference. In the case of quantitative method of research such as survey or experimentation, it is important to have remarkable number of samples in order to make certain that the conclusion is conclusive. Sample should be numerically or statistically significant. On

Discuss and evaluate societal and healthcare trends influencing Assignment

Discuss and evaluate societal and healthcare trends influencing healthcare systems and models within political environments including local, state, national, and global systems - Assignment Example Standards in western nations, for instance the US have vastly improved compared to standards in developing nations particularly in Africa. This can be attributed to better versus poor standards of living in western/ industrialized nations compared to developing countries respectively. As such, these issues affect the healthcare systems and models within political environments around the world. Developed countries deal with chronic degenerative diseases such as heart disease and various cancers while developing nations deal mostly with communicable and infectious diseases such as cholera (ODonnell, 2007, p 2820). Another important societal and healthcare trend is healthcare research and personnel. The healthcare sector has become a diverse sector today dealing with more issues rather than just preventing and treating diseases. As such, it has become imperative that healthcare and medical personnel be integrative people who can conduct and interpret research for healthcare purposes. However, the healthcare sector is understaffed making it difficult to provide adequate healthcare in local, state, national, and global systems (Skolnik & Skolnik, 2012). In conclusion, the issues discussed above among others are societal and healthcare trends influencing healthcare systems and models within political environments including local, state, national, and global systems and should be addressed to achieve a responsive and efficient healthcare industry globally. Learning.

Preparation And Recrystallisation Of Aspirin Biology Essay

Preparation And Recrystallisation Of Aspirin Biology Essay The objective of this experiment is to enable us to understand and conduct the synthesis of aspirin, understand the skills of recrystallisation and the technique of melting point determination. The main procedures are preparation of aspirin, recrystallisation of aspirin and lastly determining the melting point of the aspirin. For preparation of Aspirin, acetic anhydride is added to the measured amount of salicylic acid. Sulphuric acid is added and heated for a short period to complete reaction. Water is added once removed from heat with addition of cold water and suction filtration is carried out. As for recrystallisation of aspirin, collected crude product prepared in preparation of aspirin which is impure is dissolved in ethanol and hot distilled water is added to the solution. The watch glass together with the filter paper was weighed and the weighed filter paper was used to carry out the suction filtration. Moreover, the crystals were places on the watch glass after drying and it s weight was calculated. Then, determine the melting point of aspirin using necessary apparatus. The percent yield was about 76.7% whereas the temperature range is between 134.2 to 136.1 ÃÅ'Ã…  ÃƒÅ'Ã…  C. The results are within the expected range and i would conclude our experiment was a success. Felic Hoffman who is a german chemistry formed aspirin in 1897 by looking into French Chemistry Charles Gergardts experiment and rediscovered the acetylsalicylic acid and produced stable state of aspirin (The Great Idea Finder 2006). Salicylic acid was extracted from parts of willow trees (Dermaxime 2011). Aspirin is a derivative of salicylic acid that is a mild agent that reduces pain by relieving headache and muscle and joint aches (History of aspirin 2011). Aspirin is also used to treat mild to moderate pain from conditions such as muscle aches, toothaches and headaches. Aspirin works in our body by blocking certain natural substances in your body to reduce pain and swelling (Aspirin 2011). Esterification is a chemical reaction that is used to make esters in which the Carboxylic acid combines with an alcohol to form an ester [CH3COOC2H5] in the presence of a catalyst which is usually concentrated sulphuric acid. It is reversible reaction and they produce sweet smelling products. Esters are widely used in fragrance and flavour industry (Esterification reaction 2010). Aspirin has to be recrystallised several times to obtain purity. The properties that allow this to take place is its bulky chemical group, solubility in water and its strong intermolecular forces between the aspirin mole cules that allows it to make up the solid substance. Applications Aspirin can be used in various medical uses such as relieving mild aches and pains. It can also be used for a little complex treatment such as prevention of blood clots and prevent heart attack and stroke (Aspirin and Heart attacks 2005). However, there are side effects such as internal bleeding to the stomach and other internal organs and also cause people to experience asthma attacks and undesirable swellings (Vitamin Diary, Aspirin 2010). Theory Esterification Reaction Figure 1: Esterification Reaction (Preparation of Aspirin 1996) Shown in figure 1, is the esterification process. To form aspirin, Salicylic acid is reacted with acetic anhydride using sulphuric acid as a catalyst to produce Aspirin and Acetic acid. Sulphuric acid is used in this experiment as a catalyst to increase the rate of the reaction without being consumed in the process. Ethanoic Anhydride There are three reasons why ethanoic anhydride is used rather than other reagents such as ethanoyl chloride even thou they yield aspirin. The reasons are, ethanoic anhydride is cheaper to be purchased compared to ethanoyl chloride. It is also safer to use as it is less corrosive and does not readily hydrolyse in water unlike the other reagent. Moreover, it does not produce dangerous fumes of hydrogen chloride like ethanoyl chloride (Chemguide 2004). Procedure Preparation of Aspirin Firstly, approximately, 2.4g of salicylic acid was weighed into a dry 100ml conical flask and recorded. 6ml of acetic anhydride is added into the flask containing the salicylic acid in the fumehood. Then, 3-4 drops of concentrated sulphuric acid is added to the mixture and swirled. The mixture was also heated in the water bath for 10 to 15 minutes for the completing of reactions. After removing the flask from the water bath, 1ml of distilled water is added using a dropper to decompose the excess acetic anhydride present in the solution. 40ml of cold water is added and is stirred and rub using a stirring rod to induce crystallisation. After suction filtration is carried out the crude product is then collected. Re-crystallization of Aspirin An approximate 30ml of hot water is added to the solution and the crude product is dissolved in a 100ml conical flask with approximately 5ml of ethanol added to it and warmed on a hot plate. As there is solid separating out, the solution will be warmed till it is completely dissolved in the solution and was then allowed to cool. Then, a clean, dry watch glass with 2 filter papers was weighed and recorded. During the suction filtration of the solution, the recrystallised product is collected to the filter paper and was transferred to the watch glass. This was then put into the oven at 100oC for 15 20 minutes. Crystals together with the filter paper and the watch glass was then placed into desiccator for 5 to 10 minutes for all the liquid present to be drained. The dried crystals together with the filter papers and watch glass was weighed and recorded. The weight of dried, recrystallised aspirin is then calculated. The expected yield of aspirin was calculated from the amount of aspiri n used and the percentage yield of the dried, recrystallised aspirin was calculated. Melting point determination of aspirin The aspirin was packed into the small capillary tubes and put into the optimelt melting apparatus to determine the melting temperature of Aspirin. Results Mass Mass of salicylic acid weighed (a) = 2.40g Mass of filter paper watch glass (b) = 32.96g Mass of dried, recrystallised aspirin, filter paper watch glass (c) = 34.41g Mass of dried, recrystallised aspirin (d) is calculated by taking the mass of dried, recrystallised aspirin, filter paper and watch glass (c) which is 34.41g and subtract away the mass of filter paper and watch glass (b) which is 32.96g. (d) = (c) (b) = 34.41g 32.96g = 1.45g Therefore the mass of dried, recrystallised aspirin is 1.45g. Percent Yield To obtain the percent yield of aspirin, we have to find the moles of salicylic acid used first by taking the mass of the salicylic acid which is 2.40g and divide by the mr of salicylic acid. Number of moles of salicylic acid used (e) = mass/mr = 2.40/138 = 0.017391 mol (mol wt of salicylic acid = 138) Therefore the expected number of moles of aspirin (f) = 0.017391 mol To calculate the expected mass of aspirin, we have to take the expected moles (f) which is 0.017391 mol multiply by the mr of aspirin 180. Expected mass of aspirin (g) = 0.01739 x 180 = 3.1302 g (mol wt = 180) Then the percent yield can be calculated by taking the mass of dried recrystallised aspirin (d) which is 1.45g and divide by the expected mass of aspirin 3.1302g multiply by 100%. Percent yield = (d) / (g) ÃÆ'- 100% = 46.3% 4.3 Melting Point Temperature range = 134.2 ÃÅ'Ã…  C to 136.1 ÃÅ'Ã…  C 4.4 Appearance White, thin, flaky crystals formed. Discussion My Results According to my experiment and the results, i conclude that my end product is not really pure. This can be seen from the calculation made based on my experiment using this formula, Percent yield = (mass of dried recrystallised aspirin / expected mass of aspirin) x 100% Percent yield is the amount of substance we have obtained in total in the experiment. The experimental yield percentage is different from the theoretical percentage is because there is loss of product often occurring during the isolation and purification steps (The Synthesis of Aspirin 2010). The percent yield of the aspirin obtained from the experiment is 46.3% yield. The higher the yield percentage, the higher the purity of the aspirin will be. Therefore, according to the results, the aspirin obtained is relatively impure. However, the low percent yield can also mean that the reactant has not reacted completely or the reaction is not complete. However there is also another possibility for the lower percent yield value. It is the addition of water when carrying out suction filtration. As we have to wash down the crystals before we carry out the suction filtration, some crystals might have dissolved. Hence, the amount of water we use to wash down the crystals during suction filtratio n might have affected the percent yield too. The aspirin crystals are packed into the small capillary tubes and make sure they are all compressed without air gaps. Then they are placed into the melting apparatus. The melting temperature range of aspirin according to my experiment is between 134.2 ÃÅ'Ã…  C to 136.1 ÃÅ'Ã…  C. The theoretical melting temperature is 140 ÃÅ'Ã…  C. Since the range is near the theoretical value, this shows that the aspirin obtained is quite pure and hence contained fewer impurities. From both the calculations, I can evaluate that the aspirin is relatively pure to a however due to some experimental errors or improper techniques practiced, the percent yield is not up to expectation and moreover the incompletion of reaction might also be one of the reasons to the results obtained in this experiment. Experimental errors There were some experimental errors that have caused variation in my results compared to the theoretical solutions. Firstly, after the obtaining the crude product from the first suction filtration, we had to transfer it to the conical flask to carry out recrystallisation. During this process, there were some crystals that got blown away by the wind and some crystals poured on the desk too. Hence this might have affected the percent yield too. Therefore, I had learnt that all wind source must be switched off and be kept away from when carrying out this process to ensure accuracy in results. Secondly, once we have dissolved and during the second round suction filtration in attempt to obtain the pure aspirin, we forgot to use 2 filter papers but instead use only one filter paper on the Buchner funnel. Hence, due to the pressure, the filter paper tore and our crude product entered the filter flask that was containing the impurities and other liquid. Therefore we had to suction filtrate the whole mixture in the filter flask and hence, this might have led to presence of more impurities or lose in product. This might have affected the results. Figure 2: Apparatus of suction filtration (Chemistry 104: Synthesis of Aspirin 2010) Therefore, from this experiment I learn that I must be more alert and careful when I carry out suction filtration to avoid unnecessary hassle and inaccuracy of results and calculation. Conclusion From this experiment, I have learnt how to carry out suction filtration in the right way and to be cautious at all time when handling chemicals and so on. The major experimental findings are that, accuracy and attentiveness is very important in this experiment to obtain aspirin that is pure. However, there will be some environmental effects that will still affect the experiment to a small extent. Finally the objective of the experiment is met and the results were acceptable as it is quite accurate. Recommendations To improve on accuracy of results, we have to take into concern environmental factors such as the fan in the lab. It could affect the experimental findings as it blows away tiny light weight crystals while transferring them from one place to another. This would lead to loss of recrystallised crystals and cause variation in our calculations. When carrying out the suction filtration, it is strongly advisable to use 2 or more filter papers to prevent the tearing of the filter papers during the suction filtration due to the pressure. This would lead to the crystals to be in contact with lots of water and cause the crystals to dissolve. This might also cause inaccuracy to results. Moreover, when transferring the crystals into the Buchner flask before suction filtration, cold water is the most suitable to wash down the crystals as it minimises dissolving of crystals unlike fresh new solvents. All the chemicals must be handles in the fumehood to prevent any corrosive chemicals such as salicylic acid, acetic anhydride and sulphuric acid to be in contact with our body. This is so as these chemicals can cause irritation to body parts such as eyes and skin and can also cause bad burns.